Which particles drift in metals

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In metals, the free charges are free electrons. In fact, good electrical conductors are often good heat conductors too, because large numbers of free electrons can transport thermal energy as well as carry electrical current.

Figure 9. The distance that an individual electron can move between collisions with atoms or other electrons is quite small. The electron paths thus appear nearly random, like the motion of atoms in a gas. But there is an electrical field in the conductor that causes the electrons to drift in the direction shown opposite to the field, since they are negative. Drift velocity is quite small, since there are so many free charges.

If we have an estimate of the density of free electrons in a conductor, we can calculate the drift velocity for a given current. The larger the density, the lower the velocity required for a given current. Free-electron collisions transfer energy to the atoms of the conductor. The electrical field does work in moving the electrons through a distance, but that work does not increase the kinetic energy nor speed of the electrons.

Thus, a continuous power input is required to keep a current flowing. An exception is superconductors, for reasons we shall explore in a later chapter. Superconductors can have a steady current without a continual supply of energy—a great energy savings. For a conductor that is not a superconductor, the supply of energy can be useful, as in an incandescent light bulb filament Figure 9.

The supply of energy is necessary to increase the temperature of the tungsten filament, so that the filament glows. We can obtain an expression for the relationship between current and drift velocity by considering the number of free charges in a segment of wire, as illustrated in Figure 9. The value of n depends on the material. The charge dQ in this segment is thus q n A v d d t q n A v d d t , where q is the amount of charge on each carrier. Current is charge moved per unit time; thus, if all the original charges move out of this segment in time dt , the current is.

The carriers of the current each have charge q and move with a drift velocity of magnitude v d v d. Note that simple drift velocity is not the entire story. The speed of an electron is sometimes much greater than its drift velocity. In addition, not all of the electrons in a conductor can move freely, and those that do move might move somewhat faster or slower than the drift velocity. So what do we mean by free electrons? Atoms in a metallic conductor are packed in the form of a lattice structure.

Some electrons are far enough away from the atomic nuclei that they do not experience the attraction of the nuclei as strongly as the inner electrons do. These are the free electrons. When an electrical field is applied, these free electrons respond by accelerating.

As they move, they collide with the atoms in the lattice and with other electrons, generating thermal energy, and the conductor gets warmer. In an insulator, the organization of the atoms and the structure do not allow for such free electrons. As you know, electric power is usually supplied to equipment and appliances through round wires made of a conducting material copper, aluminum, silver, or gold that are stranded or solid.

The diameter of the wire determines the current-carrying capacity—the larger the diameter, the greater the current-carrying capacity. Even though the current-carrying capacity is determined by the diameter, wire is not normally characterized by the diameter directly.

Historically, the gauge of the wire was related to the number of drawing processes required to manufacture the wire. For this reason, the larger the gauge, the smaller the diameter.